RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACT OF GOLD MINES.
THE CORDON ESQUEL CASE.
By
Dr. Raul A. Montenegro, Biologist.

President of FUNAM. Titular Professor of Human Evolutionary Biology at the National University of Cordoba. Master's Degree Director on Environmental Issues at FICES
(National University of San Luis). Scientific Investigation Award by the Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry (University of Buenos Aires). United Nations' Global 500 Award (Brussels, Belgium). Nuclear Free Future Award (Salzburg, Austria).
Former Head of the Independent Environmental University (ULA, per its Spanish abbreviation).

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Cordoba, Argentina.
January 2003.

RESEARCH ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACT OF GOLD MINES.
THE CORDON ESQUEL CASE.
By Dr. Raul A. Montenegro, Biologist.

President of FUNAM. Titular Professor of Human Evolutionary Biology at the National University of Cordoba. Master's Degree Director on Environmental Issues at FICES (National University of San Luis). Scientific Investigation Award by the Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry (University of Buenos Aires). United Nations' Global 500 Award (Brussels, Belgium). Nuclear-Free Future Award (Salzburg, Austria). Former Head of the Independent Environmental University (ULA, per its Spanish abbreviation).

This article explains studies based on Cordon Esquel mining activity developed by Meridian Gold Inc. Those analysis have demonstrated it is of utmost important to raise awareness of following facts: gold mining operations irreversibly affect the ecosystems where they are developed, interrupt the natural cycles of soil, water, and biota, adversely affect the sustainability image of the natural environment, and leave behind considerable hazardous deposits of toxic residues which adversely affect the current and future generations.

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1. INTRODUCTION

With FUNAM and the Chair of Evolutionary Biology of the National University of Cordoba, we embarked on the analysis of the "Cordon Esquel" mining activity, intended to be developed by Meridian Gold Inc., a Canadian company, in the province of Chubut. Based on such an analysis, we produced this report, which has been developed for free distribution on behalf of the Esquel city inhabitants. All of the observations hereby contained are the author's exclusive responsibility and do not reflect the ideas of either the Environment Defense Foundation (FUNAM) or the Chair of Human Evolutionary Biology of the National University of Cordoba.

The Meridian Gold Inc. company holds 90% of the stock portfolio of the Argentinean company "El
Desquite S.A." (19) (20). Its "disseminated" kind of deposit covers an initial area of 2,500 meters in length and 500 meters in width, located at the far southern extreme of the Cordon Esquel, only a few kilometers away from the city of the same name (1) (2) (15).

It has been estimated that, once in full operation, this mining activity would remove from 30,000 to 40,000 tons of rocks per day using an open sky technique. 10% of this material would be ground up to the point of getting 70 micron rock fractions (3,000 tons). Gold would be extracted by processing the ground mineral with water-dissolved sodium cyanide, at a rate of 2.7 tons of cyanide per day (1). These mine operations would require hazardous substances to be transported in a considerable and dangerous way (3).

Vaughan considers that, "under social and environmental terms," open sky mining is one of the industrial activities that has the greatest environmental adverse impact (11). Each of its stages (deposit prospection and exploration, mine development and preparation, mineral exploitation and processing, and closure of the mine) generates a particularly harmful environmental impact. According to Kussmaul, the environmental impact caused by any mining activity is related to four main factors:
(a) Size of the exploitation (surface, depth, and production volume),
(b) Location (in natural, productive, and urban environments, or in any combination of these),
(c) Exploitation methods,
(d) Characteristics of the minerals and of their level of concentration in the deposit (12).

Even though the greatest impact occurs during the mineral exploitation and processing phases, there is also a considerable impact during the exploration stage. The following are some of the initial activities that cause negative effects against the environment:
(a) Preparation of access routes,
(b) Topographic and geologic mapping,
(c) Establishment of campsites and auxiliary facilities,
(d) Geophysical work,
(e) Hydrogeologic research,
(f) Digging of ditches and inspection wells,
(g) Sample gathering activities (13).

One of the activities that has the greatest environmental impact is open sky mining (OSM-gold) performed by big companies at delimited sites, as well as smaller scale mining activities practiced by a large number of small producers on scattered superficial deposits ("garimpeiros", see below). The number of exploited deposits and the amount of gold produced have been considerably multiplying over the last few years. Production increased from approximately 31 million ounces in 1980 to 44 million ounces in 1987 and has continued to increase (14).

Gold exploitation generates short, medium, and long term social and environmental impact such as:
(a) Irreversible destruction of natural environments within the exploitation area, also affecting neighboring natural environments by the transfer of noxious agents. The Cordon Esquel mine would destroy cold jungles located in the Sub-Antarctic Biogeographic Province.
This deforestation would contribute to the extinction of unique environmental fragments possessing a high biodiversity, adapted to cold temperatures, and to relatively low metabolisms. Massive damage, such as the one the mine would cause, reduces the original ecologic surface, volume, and density of cold forests, increasing the effects of the "Biogeography Principle of the Wilson and Mac Arthur Islands." The smaller the natural environments become, the greater their biodiversity loss will be (17).
(b) Considerable geomorphologic alterations.
(c) Distortion of surface and underground hydraulic basins. The Cordon Esquel mine would initially consume 18 liters of underground water per second; it would then obtain it from an open gorge and finally, "if necessary," from perforations that are located on the basin of the Esquel Viejo stream, this being one of the Esquel Lake tributaries, located 28 kilometers from the city (1).
(d) Decrease of the hydraulic flow as well as of the amount of available water, by year and by season. The Esquel lake (a source for salmonid reproduction in the Baggilt stream) and various river basins currently being used, would be depleted (1).
(e) Air contamination by particles, gases, and annoying noise.
(f) Routine and accidental contamination of surface and underground waters, soil, and biota by hazardous residues. Contamination would also be generated by acid drainage which, when dissolving heavy metals, would increase its own polluting load.
(g) Accidents when transporting hazardous substances.
(h) Accidents caused by leakage at the exploitation area.
(i) Irreversible destruction of the landscape and the environmental perception of the affected site.
(j) Generation of hazardous residue deposits whose contents are released during variable periods of time in spite of the use of geomembranes and other control systems, even decades after mining operations have been concluded.
(k) Generation of local, regional, and even national and international administrative corruption practices so as to justify the establishment, operation, and even the characteristics of the gold mine closures.
(l) Irreversible distortion of Patagonia´s image of a pristine and untouched environment.
(m) Important social and cultural changes that do not prevail over time (ephemeral mining activities).
(n) Setting an example for those mining activities that intend to prevail once the pioneer company has been established (1)
(15) (17) (20) (21).

This last impact is of utmost importance. Most of the big gold, silver, or other precious metal producing mines, are financed and managed by foreign or multinational companies who abandon the zone once the profitable exploitation has been concluded. Simultaneously with the company's presence, this ephemeral mining activity generates prospect, establishment, and exploitation impacts, as well as delayed impacts, which generally exceed the total impact during the exploitation stage, and which arise once the mine has already been closed. It is very common for the State and, therefore for the taxpayers, to assume responsibility for mine deposits that have been closed or abandoned by private companies.

In any non-mining activity zone, where NIMB ("Not In My Backyard") effects are foreseeable, "pioneer companies" or "first companies" tend to devote important economic and other resources to, legally or illegally, obtain authorization to get established. Whenever they overcome all community and institutional barriers, any of their future activities become easier to perform, i.e. an increase of the exploitation area, or a negative change in the use of mineral extraction technologies. Pioneer companies also contribute to opening the path for other mining activities, because during the first prospect periods and exploitation processes afterwards, an attitude of acceptance arises among those sectors that are most benefited.

2. GOLD EXTRACTION METHODS

2.1. The cyanide method

The most commonly used method is "Cyanide Heap Leach Mining" where six main elements are present:
(a) The source of the mineral,
(b) The pad associated with the heap containing a liner,
(c) The sodium cyanide solution,
(d) The application and collection system,
(e) The solution storage processes (SSP),
(f) The mineral recovery plant (10).

Explosives are used at the source of the mineral to obtain manageable blocks and fragments. These fragments are then ground in order to substantially reduce their size (usually to less than 70 u). This is the massive impact phase, whose main effects include:
(a) Irreversible destruction of natural environments in the exploitation area and, therefore, of its biota,
(b) Interruption of the flow of genes and species among natural environments,
(c) Considerable geomorphologic alterations,
(d) Distortion of surface and underground hydraulic basins,
(e) Reduction of the hydraulic flow and amount of available water by year and by season,
(f) Air contamination by particles, gases, and annoying noise,
(g) Accidents when transporting and using explosives,
(h) Irreversible destruction of the landscape and the environmental perception of the affected site,
(i) Generation of mining residue deposits.

The ground product is placed in heaps on pads. These pads usually have linings or restraining geomembranes. If the plant is geographically isolated and State controls are non-existent, low quality linings are frequently used. The heaps are subjected to lixiviation. In order to lixiviate the ground material, a sodium cyanide solution is used that contains 0.4 to 2.35 kilograms of cyanide per ton of water. The average cyanide concentration is 0.05%. The product is a lixiviation known as the "pregnant solution" (10). In the particular case of the Cordon Esquel mine, 2.7 tons of sodium cyanide would be used per day (1). The special impact phase starts with these operations whose main effects include:

(a) Possibility of cyanide and cyanide contaminated residues release in the pad and heap linings (as long as linings are used, see above). If there are no geomembranes, the impact can be extremely serious,
(b) Air contamination by gas byproducts of the chemical substances being used,
(c) Surface and underground water contamination by hazardous residues deriving from the pad and heap,
(d) Water and soil contamination by leaks originating in the "pregnant solution" driving system and in the storage reservoirs,
(e) Accidents when transporting hazardous substances,
(f) Accidents by leakage originating in the lixiviation area,
(g) Major destruction of the landscape and the environmental perception of the affected site,
(h) Damage against the biota,
(i) Damage against people working at the mine.

We do not know what method will be used to recover gold from the pregnant solution. There are two main methods: the Merrill-Crowe, and the carbon absorption method. In the Merrill-Crowe method zinc powder and lead salts are added to the solution. The gold then detaches and is precipitated, and the zinc powder combines with the cyanide. The deposit is then melted to obtain the gold. It is important to remember that during this part of the process the so-called "barren solution" and "slag material" containing heavy metals are generated. This slag material is commonly depleted into waste piles ("tails") (10).

The barren solution can be destined either to an open cycle, in which case it is diluted and then depleted into water streams, or to a closed cycle in order to minimize the cyanide consumption.

The other method of carbon absorption is usually used in small exploitations with low silver content. In this case, the pregnant solution is driven through activated carbon columns. Gold and silver contained in the solution adhere to the carbon, and the barren solution, which still contains cyanide, is taken to a storage reservoir. Using hot caustic soda, the gold and silver are detached from the carbon, and then the solution goes through a stainless steel anode cell and a cathode to plate the material. The worn carbon is "reactivated" in an oven so it can be reused (10). We must remember that most of the activated carbon in Argentina is obtained from the "quebracho Colorado," a tree that is still being irrationally cut down in the Chaco forest (in the Chaco Biogeographical province) (17).

Gold recovery operations generate new environmental impacts, such as:
(a) Possibility of release of residues containing heavy metals and other hazardous substances,
(b) Air contamination by gas byproducts deriving from chemical substances used in the recovery process,
(c) Surface and underground water contamination by hazardous residues deriving from the recovery process,
(d) Accidents when transporting hazardous substances,
(e) Accidents by leakage originating in the recovery area,
(f) Major destruction of the landscape and the environmental perception of the affected site,
(g) Damage against the biota,
(h) Damage against people working at the mine.

2.2. The Mercury method

Even though this method will not be used in the Cordon Esquel mining operation, it is still being applied by some companies and independent miners ("garimpeiros") dedicated to gold extraction.
Mercury has been used for several years in the Guiana Shield, a 415,000 square kilometer surface shared by Venezuela, Surinam, Guiana, French Guiana, and Brazil (currently the fourth largest world producer of gold). Mining activity in the Amazonian region has been estimated to release around 200 tons of mercury into the environment each year. Such a release occurs during two stages of the mining activity. First off, the amalgam stage: material obtained from rivers and mine zones go through various sifts. The material gets in contact with the mercury, which amalgamates with the gold, separating it from the rest of the minerals. Most of the discarded sediment contains residual mercury that contaminates water and soil. The second release stage occurs during the thermal treatment of the amalgam, which is heated in a pot so that the mercury is vaporized and the gold remains in the pot. If vaporization is made in a sealed container, the mercury release may be insignificant. But if an open container is used, the vaporized mercury contaminates the environment. It is estimated that 2 kilograms of mercury are released into the environment per each kilogram of gold (9).

Once in the ecosystem, mercury stays in the form of elemental mercury, or if it gets into the food chain, it can be transformed into methylmercury or organic mercury. In living organisms, methylmercury is absorbed more easily than elemental mercury. Fish with high contents of methylmercury are frequently found in the Amazonian region, even in waters that are far away from the original sources of contamination. The main source of contamination is the disseminated or surface mining, known as "garimpo," which is carried out by independent miners (called "garimpeiros"). By the end of the 1970's the discovery of important deposits in the Brazilian and Venezuelan border zone considerably intensified their mining activities and, therefore, the mercury contamination. Even though the Brazilian government has tried to spread the use of closed pots so that mercury is not released into the environment, the territory extension and lack of effective controls hinder their regular use. In 1992, approximately 650,000 "garimpeiros" were thought to be working in the region. Even when the "garimpo" production has decreased during the last several years, it still represents 30% of the total gold production in Brazil (9).

3. HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF CYANIDE AND OTHER SUBSTANCES

3.1. Effects of substances used in the cyanide lixiviation method

At low, medium, and high doses, cyanide impacts both biota and human beings. Cyanide is fitotoxic and interferes with the photosynthesis of green plants. This causes a very serious impact in Patagonia because low temperatures generally imply lower metabolisms and therefore a slower speed of recovery. The impact caused by cyanide on environments with intense rates of biotic renovation is not the same as that caused on environments with severe environmental restrictions.

At the animal organisms' level, cyanide can be absorbed by the skin, ingested and entered into the digestive system, or inhaled. Hydrogen cyanide concentrations of 200 ppm are lethal for most animals. In water environments, concentrations as low as 0.1 milligrams per liter affect the most sensitive aquatic biota. Fish and birds are highly sensitive. In order for the aquatic life to be protected, the US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, established in 1980 a maximum permissible value of 3.5 ug/l of free cyanide during an average period of 24 hours, and a maximum limit of 52 ug/l at all times (14).

The DL50 for human beings is from 1 to 3 mg/kg (oral). Nonetheless, in human beings and other living species, in addition to acute effects, chronic effects also develop from sub lethal exposure (10). These effects are not commonly known and can be added to preexistent impacts. Sub lethal doses generally cause headache, loss of appetite, weakness, nausea, dizziness, and irritation of the eyes and of the respiratory system in contaminated persons (14).
Cyanide and its byproducts can therefore affect biodiversity and the ecosystem's active biomass by creating huge crises at the aquatic environment level. In this case, the observation we made above about forests and other plant formations is also applicable. While the toxic effects decrease with the temperature of the environment where they are contained, the high sensitivity of fish towards cyanide slows down their population recovery even at low temperatures. Every gold mine operating under the cyanide method has a local and short term impact; however, medium and long term impacts are the most disturbing because mine residues act as "delayed chemical bombs." Cyanide is quite persistent and can cause true catastrophes, even a number of years after the mine has been closed.

The mines that apply the Merrill-Crowe method for gold recovery also use considerable amounts of zinc and lead, whose residues mainly contaminate surface and underground waters, as well as soil and biota. Lead exposure during pregnancy causes fetal development alterations, premature birth, low weight of the newly born, and a reduction of the child's IQ (IQ = Intelligence Quotient) (18). This has been demonstrated by 28 epidemiologic surveys carried out in Europe, New Zealand and Australia (24)(25). Children can absorb up to 50% of the lead contained in food and water, while in adults this absorption is reduced to 10% (22). Children are also more susceptible to lead neurotoxic effects than adults (24). Exposure to lead also affects the development of older children and can increase blood pressure in adults.

High doses of lead are believed to seriously affect the nervous system and kidneys of both children and adults. Lead also provokes spontaneous abortions in pregnant women as well as reproductive disorders in men. Lead and its components are thought by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, IARC, to be possible carcinogen agents in human beings (group 2B). On the other hand, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist classifies lead and its components as "a confirmed carcinogen agent in lab animals" (Group A3) (16). As far as zinc is concerned, high exposure can affect the digestive system. Zinc has neither been reported as a carcinogen agent nor a cause for malformations during pregnancy. Compounds such as zinc chromate, however, are considered by the IARC as true carcinogen agents in human beings (Group 1) (18).

Another source of risk is the activated carbons used to absorb the contaminating agents, which can release toxic agents if mishandled.

3.2. Effects of mercury

Mercury can be absorbed either as elemental mercury or as methylated mercury (methylmercury). Elemental Mercury is poorly absorbed by the digestive system. When inhaled, however, it rapidly enters into the circulatory system through the lung tissues. This frequently occurs during the vaporization of mercury contained in the amalgam. It also occurs when absorbed by the skin. Where as organic mercury is usually absorbed when eating fish. People who ingest it generally suffer from "Minamata disease." Symptoms of mercury intoxication include shivering, tachycardia, weakness, and loss of coordination. When doses are high, it can produce blindness, mental retardation, and eventually death. In newly born children, retention of methylmercury is even higher than in older children and in adults (23). Its negative effects against the central nervous system occur particularly when exposure takes place before birth. (26).The EPA has established a maximum permissible ingestion of 0.1 micrograms per kilogram of living weight.

In the Amazonian region, where "garimpo" is practiced, symptoms of mercury poisoning are similar to those of malaria, which is the reason that most of the cases remain hidden and are not treated properly (9).

4. MINING COMPANIES AND CITIZENS' REACTIONS

International gold production is led by several dozens of mining companies, including the following: Acacia Resources Ltd. (South Melbourne, Australia), Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd. (Toronto, Canada), Anglogold (Johannesburg, South Africa), Apex Silver Mines Ltd. (Colorado, United States), Ashanti Goldfields Co. Ltd. (Accra, Ghana), Barrick Gold Corporation (Toronto, Canada), Battle Mountain Gold Company (Texas, United States), Berna Gold Corporation (Vancouver, Canada), Buenaventura (Lima, Peru), Cambio Inc. (Montreal, Canada), Canyon Resources Corporation (Golden, United States), Crown Resources Corporation (Denver, United States), Dayton Mining Corporation (Vancouver, Canada), Delta Gold Mines (North Sydney, Australia), Dia Met Minerals Ltd. (Canada), Durban Roodeport Deep Limited (Johannesburg, South Africa), Echo Bay Mines (Englewood, United States), Franco-Nevada (Toronto, Canada), Freeport-McMoRan Cooper and Gold Inc. (New Orleans, United States), Geomaque Explorations Ltd. (Toronto, Canada), Glamis Gold Ltd. (Reno, United States), Goldcorp Inc. (Toronto, Canada), Golden Star Resources Ltd. (Denver, United States), Gold Fields Limited (Johannesburg, South Africa), Harmony Gold Mining Company Limited (Gauteng, South Africa), Hecla Mining Company (Coeur d'Alene, United States), Hill 50 Gold NL (West Perth, Australia), Homestake Mining Company (San Francisco, United States), Iamgold Corporation (Markham, Canada), JCI Gold Corporation (Johannesburg, South Africa), Kinross Gold Corporation (Toronto, Canada), Lihir Gold Ltd. (Papua, New Guinea), Meridian Gold (Reno, Nevada, United States), Metallica Resources Inc. (Littleton, United States), Newcrest Mining Ltd. (Melbourne, Australia), Newmont Mining
Corporation (Denver, United States), Normandy Mining Ltd. (Adelaide, Australia), Pan American
Silver Corporation (Vancouver, Canada), Placer Dome Inc. (Vancouver, Canada), Randgold
Resources Limited (Southdale, South Africa), Repadre Capital Corporation (Toronto, Canada),
Resolute Ltd. (Perth, Australia), Rio Narcea Gold Mines Ltd. (Denver, United States), Royal
Gold Inc. (Denver, United States), Sons of Gwalia Ltd. (West Perth, Australia), Stillwater Mining
Company (Denver, United States), Teckgold (Vancouver, Canada), Viceroy Resources
(Vancouver, Canada), and Vista Gold Corporation (Denver, United States) (4).

Most of the big mining companies dedicated to gold exploitation in industrialized nations have been questioned within their own countries by government environmental organizations, citizens, and NGOs. This fact, along with a growing international demand for gold, has contributed to these companies' transfer of operations to other nations exercising more lenient administrative and social resistance (see above). For instance, the mining company Battle Mountain was charged in Olympia (Washington, United States) with releasing cyanide and heavy metals into the environment. Nonetheless, while it was facing charges for contamination in the United States, Battle Mountain was at the same time establishing branches in Bolivia and other nations. Battle Mountain Gold was acquired by Newmont Mining (6).

In Latin America a number of companies dedicated to gold prospect and exploitation activities, expanded their operations to Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Active mines located in Argentina include: Bajo La Alumbrera in Catamarca (copper and gold) and Cerro Vanguardia in Santa Cruz (silver and gold). As far as feasible projects are concerned, we can mention Agua Rica in Catamarca (copper and gold), Pascua Lama in San Juan (gold), San Jorge in Mendoza (copper and gold), and Manantial Espejo in Santa Cruz (gold). Projects such as El Pachon (copper and molybdenum) and Pascua Lama (gold) were supported by the Chilean Mining Integration and Complementary Treaty, which was signed on December 29th, 1997. This agreement provides companies with the ability to exploit bi-national deposits located in the mountain range zone.

The Canadian magazine "The Corporate Ethics Monito," pointed out in its July-August 1994 issue that Canadian mining companies emigrate to other countries due to several reasons, such as:
(a) Fiscal incentives by the hosting country,
(b) Lucrative mineral deposits,
(c) Lower production costs,
(d) Less complicated and faster approval processes,
(e) Less strict or non-applicable environmental rules.
The high and growing price of gold contributes to making those mines that barely have 0.01 ounces of gold per ton of extracted material, profitable. The transition from highly inefficient (60%) gold mining using mercury, which has a more visible short term environmental impact, to a more efficient (97%) gold mining using cyanide, in combination with the high prices of gold, has caused a considerable increase in mine multiplication.

The national economic crises in Latin America combine dangerously with the aggressive penetration strategies carried out by big mining corporations. This fact, along with the use of local geologic and mining information, has rapidly expanded prospect and exploitation sites. Over the last 5 years, the government of Honduras has granted 350 mining permits to explore and potentially exploit 30% of its territory (7). This growth in the government's offer to attract foreign capital is accompanied by a weak and incomplete national legislation on environmental and working condition issues. Argentina promoted one of the most pathetic instances of international convocation, orchestrated by the National Ministry of Economy, which was headed by Domingo Caballo during the first part of Carlos Menem's term. A Ministry's delegation traveled to Denver to urge a group of big mining companies from the United States, Canada, and other countries to invest in Argentina. The weakness of the environmental and labor regulations (5) was among the attractions offered by national officers.

Unfortunately, a shady relationship still prevails among foreign mining companies, local companies, and governments on duty. This is one of the main reasons why foreign mining investment has exponentially multiplied over the last 30 years.

There are numerous foreign companies involved in mining projects within Argentinean territory, such as: Cerro Vanguardia (South Africa), Minefinders Corporation Ltd. (Vancouver, Canada), MIM
Holdings (Australia, which manages the Bajo de La Alumbrera mine), Rio Algom (Canada), North Ltd. (Australia), Oro Belle Resources (Vancouver, Canada), Trelleborn-Boliden, Viceroy
Resource Corporation (Vancouver, Canada), Atomredmetzoloto (Russia), Northern Orion
Explorations Ltd. (Toronto, Canada), Climax Mining NL, Cambior, Primo Resources, TNR
Resources (formerly Toscana Resources), Opawica Exploration, and Yamana Resources. These foreign companies are associated with approximately 50 Argentinean companies.

The AME listing mentions the following mining companies located in Argentina as "related to gold deposit exploitation:" Anglo Gold Ltd., Barrick Gold Corporation, BHP Billiton, Brancote Holdings Plc. (which is included in the "Esquel" trade name), Homestake Mining Company, and MIM Holdings Ltd. (Bajo de La Alumbrera) (8). Based on other sources' information, we can add the following: Tenke Mining, related to the "Vicuña" gold exploitation in San Juan; Patagonia Gold, dedicated to the auriferous exploitation of its properties in Argentina; IMA Exploration Inc. (a Canadian company established in Argentina since 1993); Inlet Resources (dedicated to searching gold deposits near Veladero); OroPlata Limited from Australia (which develops the auriferous activity of Cerro Negro in Santa Cruz, with a surface of 25,199 hectares); Golden Peak Resources (exploration of their properties in Argentina); HPD Explorations (which holds a joint venture with Patagonia Gold S.A.); IAM Gold Corporation (exploration of auriferous sites in Argentina); Admiralty Resources NL (exploration in search of gold and silver); Argentina Gold Corporation; Sikaman Gold Resources; Berna Gold; Consolidated Puma Minerals (prospecting of its properties in Argentina; Berna Gold holds 33% of its stock of shares); Crown Resources, owner of 60% of Solitario Resources (exploration of its properties in Argentina); Black Hawk Mine (exploration, 1998); Meridian Gold of Canada, and Cardero Resources (gold in its Argentinean properties). Frequent changes deriving from companies' acquisitions and mergers complicate the identification of those companies participating in the prospection and exploitation of gold deposits. American Gold Corporation, for instance, was purchased by Homestake Mining Corporation, which was subsequently acquired by Barrick Gold (6).

The growing social and environmental impact of gold mines has brought about a number of protest movements in Latin America. Most of these cases have been recorded by the "Center for Economic and Social Rights" (CESR) of Brooklyn (New York, United States) (7). From February 8th to 10th, 2002, the CESR co-organized the Central American Regional Conference of the "Global Mining Campaign," with the participation of affected citizens and organizations from countries such as Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. This movement is also expanding to South America (7). An important research work, "Real Cost of Gold. Human Rights Violations in Mining in Ecuador" was presented at the 25th Session of the United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Committee in Geneva (April, 2001). There are currently several important movements under way against gold mining activities in various Latin American countries. In Argentina the most recent protests took place in Jujuy (2001-2002), in the Kolla community and Esquel (Chubut), against the Meridian Gold Inc's "Cordon Esquel" project.

The research made by Jujuy's Microbiologic Processes Pilot Plant determined that the Orosmayo River is contaminated with lead and mercury. The area where analyzed sediments were sampled by Pilot Plant is located very close to San Pedro, a place where gold is washed with heavy machinery. The inhabitants of Liviara had long been pointing out that "the small trouts that we learned how to take care of, located in the Vazcachani zone, where we used to have a hatchery, are all gone. Every single fish is dead [...] because of contamination" (27). The Kolla community still opposes the gold extraction in Liviara and Orosmayo. On July 19th, 2002, Judge Jose Luis Cardero made a ruling not to innovate and instructed both the State and mining companies located within the zone to "stop their activities." These companies have been extracting gold and contaminating the environment in an open violation of Article 75 of the Constitution and Covenant 169 of the ILO. In their petition, the Kolla indigenous community outlined that, according to Covenant 169, their rights towards existent natural resources in their land "must be particularly protected." Unfortunately, the companies remained in operation and, when the judicial recess ended, Judge Benjamin Villafañe revoked the temporary order decreed by Cardero (27).

At the beginning of August, 2002, representatives of all of the region's indigenous communities initiated a "Korpachada" movement near the Courthouse in order to voice their claims and to request the ceasing of contamination caused by gold mines. The objective of such a movement was to "sensitize justice instances" about the negative effects caused by gold exploitation. The "Warmi Sayajsungo" Women Association and Jujuy's Council of Indigenous Organizations joined "those brothers who are currently debating amidst injustice" (27). Invited by the Kolla community, the author of this research organized a course for more than 140 Kolla and Guarani leaders, with the objective of strengthening the local struggle against the irrational gold exploitation and the Puna contamination (28).

Another great citizen protest movement against the noxious effects caused by gold mining is currently in progress in the Chubut province (January, 2003). As part of this process, two judicial actions have been submitted at the Civil, Commercial, and Labor District Court of First Instance, headed by Dr. Claudio Alejandro Petris: an appeal by the inhabitants of Esquel, and a Presumed Damage lawsuit submitted by the Chubut Citizens' Ombudswoman, Marcela Colombini. Both judicial actions were submitted on December 16th, 2003. In general terms, the objective is to stop the work performed in the El Desquite-Cordon Esquel Sector; declare it illegal for lack of compliance with mining and environmental legislation; accomplish the repair of the damage caused against the environment, and impose fines against the aggressors (21).

At the beginning of January, 2003, a massive public demonstration occurred in Esquel with the participation of citizens from the whole Andean Region, the Chubut Province, and the rest of the Patagonia "to say ‘no' to open sky mining with the use of toxins." This movement was supported at all times by professionals from the "San Juan Bosco" National University of Patagonia, in Esquel. One of its members, Dr. Silvia Gonzalez, was threatened by telephone after publicly informing about the risks of using cyanide in the gold mines. The native towns of Mapuche Tehuelche of the Chubut and Rio Negro provinces, for their part, produced a harsh document against illegal mining activities. The document outlined their opposition to the intrusion in their territories of State companies or organizations that intend to exploit their natural resources "without previous consultation and authorization, as stated in ILO's Covenant 169" (National Law Nº 24071) (21). According to Quintana, the Huesca Antieco Community submitted an appeal against the Mining Provincial Direction for having granted permits in an open violation of ILO's Covenant N° 169. It also indicated that, at the beginning of 2001, "the Administrative Investigations Attorney, Patricio Romero, from the Chubut province" was carrying out an investigation on "the usurpation of the deposit's original finding ownership" (1).

Municipalities accompanied this proceeding with the approval of Rulings which:
(a) Limit or prohibit mining activities degrading ecosystems,
(b) Prohibit the installation of laboratories for chemical treatment of minerals,
(c) Prohibit the introduction and storage of cyanide for mining purposes,
(d) Establish Popular Consultation and Public Audience systems before authorizing projects that could endanger the environment (21).
Among those Municipalities approving these rulings are Epuyen, Lago Puelo, Puerto Madryn, Comodoro Rivadavia, and Trevelín (21). Unfortunately, the government of the Chubut province and, to a lesser degree, the Esquel municipality, "did not show up as controllers [...] but as spokesmen and transmitting agents" of the mining activity "who limited and marginalized the voices of protest at the same time" (1).

5. CONCLUSIONS

It is of utmost important to raise awareness of the fact that gold mining operations irreversibly affect the ecosystems where they are developed, interrupt the natural cycles of soil, water, and biota, and adversely affect the sustainability image of the natural environment of the Patagonian region. These are ephemeral activities that provide economic resources in a very asymmetrical way. The social changes that arise from mining operations rapidly collapse when deposits are definitely closed.

Moreover, gold mines generate two groups of environmental impact that are divided by the closure of the mine. The first group includes the adverse environmental impact which follows the exploration, beginning, and exploitation activities while the mine is functioning. The second group, which starts immediately after the mine has been closed, generally has no time limit for its unpredictable behavior and includes possible release of cyanide and heavy metals. When a gold mine is closed, it leaves behind considerable geomorphologic and ecologic modifications, including hazardous deposits of toxic residues which adversely affect the current and future generations.

The risky nature of this kind of exploitation and its short, medium, and long term effects, make it incompatible with, for instance, the territorial and ecosystemic organization of Esquel. Even though there have already been several public demonstrations against the adverse impact caused by active mines in Argentina, this is a pilot case against investment projects. Unfortunately, public control organizations have proved to be technically poor and highly suggestive of complicity with Meridian Gold's interests. Some of these cases must be investigated by the Provincial and Federal Justice, having in mind that there has been an "Abuse of Authority and violation of public servants' duties" (Articles 248 and 249 of the Criminal Code), and possibly, "incompatible negotiations in the exercise of public functions" (Article 265 of the Criminal Code).

Because of the current value of the dollar, people and companies are able to purchase land at a third of the value that was effective in the year 2001. This situation worsens the mining penetration phenomenon carried out by intricate networks of investment groups. Argentina is in urgent need of investigating the land purchase transactions by mining companies, in order to make sure that their activities do not violate the law. But unfortunately the general economic crisis makes government and citizen decisions more vulnerable. Campaigns by NGO's and citizen groups, preventive judicial actions, and Public Audiences are among the best protection measures. However, under the current atmosphere of uncertainty, the most sensible course of action is to reinforce regional economies that are based on the sustainable use of natural resources, instead of allowing for the establishment of ephemeral and high environmental risk mining operations.

REFERENCES.
(1) Quintana, P. 2002. A megaproject is promoted in Esquel with no environmental or financial guarantees whatsoever. Research prepared by the Nizkor Team, Esquel, November 7th, 2002, 6p.
(2) Bielsa, B. 2002. Everything is a big lie. Personal communication, 2 p.
(3) Llamazares, L. 2002. Comments included in the Trelew Agency Communiqué, entitled "Llamazares enquired on the transportation system". Trelew, 1 p.
(4) Denver Gold Group. 1999. Mining Investment Forum 1999. Denver, Colorado, October 17-20,
1999. Ed. Denver Gold Group, Denver, 6 p.
(5) FUNAM (Environment Defense Foundation) led a campaign in Argentina to denounce the promotion made in Denver (United States) by the Nation's Economy Ministry.
(6) Goldsheet. 2003. Goldsheet Mining Directory. Companies. Updated directory on January 3rd, 2003, 6 p. See: www.goldsheetlinks.com.
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(9) See the "Brazil Gold Mining and Environment" (BRAGOLD Case) work. Brazil Gold, 13 p.
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(12) According to Kussmaul (1989) cited by AECO-AT (2001).
(13) According to Salinas (1993) cited by AECO-AT (2001).
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(27) El Tribuno de Jujuy. 2002. Ultimatum by indigenous people. Subtitle: Contamination in the Orosmayo. El Tribuno de Jujuy newspaper, Thursday, August 1st, 2002, p. 15.
(28) Dr. Raul Montenegro led a course for the Kolla and Guarani community leaders where he explained current methodologies used in the extraction of gold, and how to get organized in order to refrain mining companies from keeping on with their environmental contamination activities (Jujuy, August 2002). The course was organized by COAJ.